Tiger Conservation: Rebuilding Our Ecosystems

As environmentalists warn us the 6th Mass Extinction is on the way. This is a certainty until unless we do something to stem the rot and put brakes on demise of many species.

How?

There could be a vast cornucopia of solutions but let us pay greater attention to what we have in hand...and that is the remaining ecosystems. The critical tiger habitats are limited in area but they are surrounded by badly fragmented and overused lands surviving under constant threat from human encroachment and biotic pressures. Subject to overgrazing by the livestock, they offer stiff competition to the wilderness that prevails. The periphery of tiger reserves, they are called the buffer because this land is crucial for the survival of the tiger in India. As a matter of practice or conservation technique we have to tackle each and every factor/element imperative or influential in the survival of the big cats in India.   

These core verdant lands are complete ecosystems albeit drastically reduced due to human activities. In India, most of these areas come under the aegis of Project Tiger and are notified as tiger reserves. Also called protected areas they are a blessing for all life forms with beleaguered existence. The vital inviolate core offers a place for the successful breeding of neglected life forms and protects them from ever-expanding agriculture and marauding humans' ways.     

Buffer zone management become crucial in the current circumstances of dire need. The viable lands where all life forms can live and flourish had been badly reduced due to urbanization, encroachment, agriculture, and in some places commercial activities and manufacturing. The regulated ecotourism efforts in the buffer have proved to be beneficial and fetch revenue and keep the areas under the scanner besides development initiatives for the upkeep of the ecosystem. It provides employment to local laborers, guides, and drivers.  

In most of the buffer zones especially those surrounding the major tiger reserves protection is accorded. Patrolling is a means of according physical protection to these lands but the biotic pressure, culling of trees, and encroachment by agricultural practices to some extent continues illegally.       

In the buffer limiting human population and limiting land occupancy (strictly) to the original inhabitants is imperative and so is the need to discourage commercial activities therein. This sounds discriminatory but then we have to understand the right land use patterns taking these steps would mean large areas secured for the forests, grasslands, and rivers the natural earthly phenomenons. We cannot put these lands to use for greed as well as for our economic survival because we have enough that is beyond repair - taken over by agriculture, settlements, and manufacturing not forgetting the usurpation of forests due to reckless mining.   

The time has come for extensive in-situ conservation, especially to rewild the areas with the potential for regeneration like the buffer zones with extensive plantation drives using indigenous species. In order to ameliorate the damage done we have to take some steps that could redefine land use patterns in India. Limiting human populations and livestock - most livestock is unproductive anyway - is a priority...if not the complete trans location of people. This approach may be seen as regressive or discriminatory but in a later period, this will help check climate change...turn it favorably for the existence and continuation of life on Earth...and yes the ecosystem repair efforts will provide employment to the indigenous communities the right way. 

It would be unfair to say that protection offered and plantation drives are not being done by the present dispensation but this has to be done on a larger scale. The departments can rarely influence the scale of activities required due to political and administrative constraints hence public pressure is required in circumstances like these.  

We have to learn to speak or express what we deem to be right in the management of our wilderness and the Nation as a whole. Sitting mutely will unfold the disaster in making with a ferocity that will eventually destroy life on Earth. The time has come to tackle climate change seriously with full-scale efforts. 

Plant a few indigenous plants in your home that is the right way to begin.

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Uday blogs on conservation and the environment. He is a freelance naturalist in India.
Contact: pateluday90@hotmail.com
9755089323

Man Animal Conflict: Wild Elephants & Habitat Loss

Unearthing the Earth!

{Governments do not look beyond the projects! When framing a developmental project please spell out the environmental concern first! We do not want a rail line or a highway passing from a land belonging to other life forms in our precious habitats!}

First it was the rapid expansion of agriculture and settlements that decimated vast habitats in India. Now we have this development thing going with a jingoistic fervor beyond comprehension. The agriculture lands rapidly converted...taken away from wild animals or other life forms... were primarily forests and to some extent grasslands, not forgetting aquatic ecosystems that were destroyed in the wake. 

While in case of tigers, they were completely wiped out from denuded forests all over the country, the elephants clung to the remains and inaccessible regions since being coarse grazers they are not specialized hunters like the big cats. But their population grew in time to come especially, from ban on hunting which was a must. 

What we fail to realize is that floral diversity is the prey base of the elephants like in case of many other herbivores. It is this floral diversity we are losing in the country. Please do not look from the perspective of protected areas they constitute a minuscule of land. Conservation has to be widespread pervasive constructively.     

The pillage has resulted in severe man animal conflict vis a vis the pachyderm and man. As the elephants venture back into what were their earlier feeding grounds they find the urban assemblage highways, rails, canals, dams, settlements, industries and mining grounds apart from acres of fields to their consternation. 

Umbrage as results is difficult to manage and men die too with the animal being blamed for it. Sadly as consequence!  Electrocution, poaching, hunting, accidents all are decimating the population of pachyderms in India. 

Wildlife encroaching upon the fields is not greed they are not especially fond of agricultural produce in the country of rapidly shrinking habitats it is a necessity an act of survival. Wildlife encroachment into human settlements is not an aberration or desire to kill it is simply trying to recover lost homelands or gain more space in order to survive. 

But unfortunately human fields and settlements are full stops the poor animals are incapable of understanding. Take the case of Asiatic Lion in India issues have stood in the way and they have not been trans-located to other grounds so far. This will certainly result in conflict in their present area and the predator will be put to blame. I hope better sense prevails!         

All this reeks of a bad land management for conservation output. Draw a straight line and excavate...projects take priority...the development imperative.  

Now this question should arise how much land should we vacate before we lose all our endangered species and endanger those that are not...but in time to come. Do we have a time bound solution? 

Encroachment into prime habitats is not a hidden factor it is right in the open and dispensations pay two hoots to it. But creating more PAs and increasing the dimensions of existing PAs is definitely the answer. Restricting agrarian practices, preventing commercialization and unchecked development is the answer! This cannot be done outright that is quite evident but a more circumstantial approach should in place. But who has the time and initiative? All we see is personal bickering in the media and formulation of policies only based on human welfare. There is hardly any thought accorded to environmental concerns and conservation. Just creating institutions and acts is not enough proper implementation and rationale has to be a proper ongoing activity which we expect from the people at helm. The people of India would like to witness more committed and sincere approach towards conservation and environmental concerns in totality.             

Under the Project Elephant the Government has issued directives to Elephant States to create barriers  (sic) and trackers will study the movement of these animals to minimize conflicts. Is this the root cause management? One way to minimize conflicts with animals living in our wilderness is to accord more space. Are we willing? To many the suggestion would appear as gross illogical. Where will the humans go?        

The World we live in reeks of human prerogative and prejudice other life forms are mere elements that evolved along with man but are now inconsequential. 

Who is to blame? 

Fairly and squarely humans are to be blamed...and the act most damaging has been unchecked population growth, which continues to grow. The development imperative may not necessarily have to be due to the population of India bursting over the seams. Every dispensation is interested in managing the countries huge population (Vote Bank) irrespective of ecological cost that the Nation has to bear. Population growth should be checked with full vigor. Then comes the development factor which is erroneously blamed on the massive population. This would have been there even if the population check was in picture. 

Look at some developed countries there is nothing left but this modern human assemblage. Have they stemmed the rot that is the environment imbalances? No! The climate change is effecting one and all and to worsen the unchecked fossil fuel consumption is nothing but disastrous. So we too emulate them!      

India differs from many other Nations in that our conservation ethos date back to thousands of years and the message is still intact. If we do not stem the rot there will be no places for wilderness in the country and the result is already warming thanks to the climate change which will take a noticeable toll in time to come.       

Role elephants play in conservation. 

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Uday works as naturalist at Kanha National Park.
He writes on conservation issues and wildlife.
Contact: pateluday90@hotmail.com

Tiger Conservation: It is a matter of space & protection

Although the tiger population has risen marginally in recent times, the animal is still in danger. Danger of extinction that is. The animal survives in National Parks and Tiger Reserves, these are protected areas. The survival can at best be described as precarious in some of the protected areas.

The core or the critical tiger habitat provides sanctuary to these big cats and a reasonable protection. This is where the animals breed the most. In protected areas, where human and livestock disturbance is minimal along with adequate protection measures the population growth is substantial.         

With the expanding population, the predators have to move out of the core into buffer in order to find space and avoid insurmountable competition from dominant tigers. The buffer zone contains human habitations with plethora of livestock contributing to grazing pressure and depletion of resources. The buffer zone which at many places has completely lost whatever reasonable crown cover was there earlier, also contains fields converted from forests during the era whence there was free for all. The road intersections, burgeoning and urbanization of settlements are all contributing to ever reducing buffer. 

Image By Doornik

In well protected ecosystems like Corbett, Ranthabhore, Kanha, Bandhavgarh and Pench National Parks there is significant movement of tigers in the buffer. The constriction of good habitat is creating terrible territorial conflicts with fatalities. The matter is compounded by reduced breeding, and reduction in prey base.  As the population increases the space availability would be a major issue..it already is at reserves mentioned.    

The human population pressure is constant as there are very little restrictions. The viability of the buffer zone is limited, hence the big cats are entirely dependent upon the core of which there is no scope of enlargement since the dense crown cover is limited, thanks to indiscriminate felling in the yesteryear {s}.        

Image By Doornik

The matter is further compounded by poaching which is limited locally but more vicious whence organized gangs descend unto the protected area. The well known poaching strategy is using hunter gatherer communities like pardhis, bawarias and behlias and perhaps more. The innervated communities are easily subject to enticement by the network operating locally on the behest of major gangs in India and outside. Being hunters since yore, these are expert at their jobs and many an instances go unnoticed, hence the mystery of missing tigers...  

The demand is fueled by China, Japan, Korea and Taiwan and to some extent other Asian countries. The  pelts, crafts, cosmetics and medicines are commercially available all over the World. 

The demand as mentioned will never be reduced let alone come to a naught. These countries are never going to mend their ways, hence no time or effort should be wasted on convincing them otherwise.

Strictly controlling poaching and penury is an option that cannot be otherwise.          

Greater impetus has to be accorded to what is already being done in the core. It seems highly improbable that human settlements could be reduced in the buffer zone hence more efforts should be spent on afforestation, development of habitat by creating water bodies and preserving whatever is there already. 

The crux if this article is that in spite of human settlements, livestock and agriculture significant pockets of forests should be protected and conserved in the same manner as core. This can be done by integrating the protection mechanism with that of the critical habitat. The burgeoning of industrial or commercial activity has already been restricted by the law but more vigilance is required in order to plug the loopholes.

Veterinary practices should be enhanced in order to control disease and treat ailments amidst the wild animals and the livestock. 

Until unless more is done in the buffer the viability of tiger surviving would be limited to the core area.         

Searching for tiger in Pench

Pench is a unique destination that has been popularized by Capt.Sleeman and the legendary writer Kipling. Capt Seelman wrote in his book "Rambles and Recollection" about Mowgli the Wolf Child first discovered by Lt. Moor of British Army in Central India. He found the child in the village of Sant Vavadi.

Kipling's account of Seoni Hills in "Jungle Book" is fiction that is based on reality.  The imagination has mesmerized readers all over the World. Actually it was not the book that did it but the film by Walt Disney Production that proselytized millions across the World. The film created love and respect for other life forms by presenting them in a highly loveable manner including Sher Khan. Yes Sher Khan too, the object of our reckless pursuit on tiger safari. The film is in my  view one of the greatest conservation work in history of mankind. Hyperbole not to be misunderstood.

The denizens of the wild still survive but in less numbers, the forest wealth has been diminished by loggers and the down slide continues.  Within the confines of Pench National Park the tigers have learned to thrive well while their brothers outside the protected area are totally at the mercy of humans. 

Tigers are shy animals and very difficult to see in dense thickets. They are by nature nocturnal animals hence active hunting takes place in the night. The tigers love to move in the cold of the night and prefer to lie in the shade whence the sun is high up. They are seen whence forced to move in the day time on paths frequented by humans. Or on the jungle roads inside the park. Thirst and hunger are two major factors which forces the big cat to cross path with humans. Through years of experience their instinctive avoidance of humans has come into picture and when the stress factor is not there it is very very difficult to see these animals. 

For the big cats the alarm cries are the biggest give away and so is there spoor. Some have come to realize that the tourists on jeep is harmless and dare to venture in full daylight in their presence. This has given the benign tourist extreme moments of delight, but at the same time made them realize the importance of nature conservation and respect for all life forms. Not till one sees the tiger does he or she realize the importance of ecosystems and the wonder creation of Mother Earth.  

Tourism does play an important role in creating awareness about nature and our environment. It persuades tourist to value and conserve whatever is left of  natural Earth.  Tiger safaris are vital if we have to keep educating the uninitiated. The tourism infrastructure, the hotels in Pench National Park in MP are foundation of conservation and responsible tourism. The sustenance of locals means greater help in conserving our inheritance.

The conservationists, tourists, wildlife photographers and nature lovers are the sentinel of wilderness. They are the voice that speaks for the tigers and other persecuted life forms.  It is the people who care to visit natural heavens that realize our inhertiance not those who never bother.  For you do not hear a golfer say" Help Save the Tiger".        

Tiger Lands of India

The subcontinent was full of tigers before 20th century. But expanding population and need for agricultural land decimated the big cat’s habitat. This was associated with large scale hunting in India. There was a drastic fall in the tiger population by the seventies. The Project Tiger initiated to conserve the endangered species achieved success albeit for a short time.  The scheme controls barely 2 /3 percent of the country’s forest habitats – protected areas.  

The tiger population is precariously low around 1400 cats survive. This number is also suggestive of large scale plundering of tiger habitats in India which still continues.  Both habitat destruction and hunting has contributed to the sad plight of the tigers in India.  The former has been more damaging since large tracts of forest have been denuded in the country and it continues.

India is in a state of quandary since the leaders perceive large scale industrialization as solution for economic development and prosperity for the poverty ridden masses. Habitat conservation and industrialization are an antithesis and intrusion in pristine lands is deadly. The rabid industrialization augurs environmental hazards by reducing the green cover and emission of poisonous waste harmful gases and chemicals. Raw material required is often mined which directly affect our ecosystems. Mining in the country has been a scourge with absolutely no control exhibited by the state governments or the administrative bodies - court reprimand notwithstanding.   

There are no efforts or ingenuity to go in for green industrialization the cottage industries are an apt answer to it. In eco sensitive zones the development should take places by empowering the local with indigenous skill set. Hence a stable earning source would emerge. Handicraft industry is one such example, eco tourism is another. Proper harnessing and utilization of minor forest produce is much less damaging than perceived. Assistance in marketing is a prerequisite in order to sustain the efforts.  

Agriculture is another malicious factor that has reduced our forests and grasslands to naught. Most of the agricultural practices in and around tiger reserves are inefficient and non productive. The land comprises of gravels and by all means is infertile, there may be exceptions but the land owners are very poor. The dependence of large herds of livestock especially cattle is another menace. Since we cannot utilize beef for food in India the holding population of old animals is unfeasible and puts further pressure on the ecosystem. (I am not advocating beef consumption). 

The livestock also endangers rare species because of disease transmission. The proximity to the forests is one reason for man animal conflict in which the latter is the looser. In Corbett where man eating is taking place often, the villages are situated right in the dense pockets. Hence the clash is inevitable with large scale intrusion taking place every day.        

Most of the tiger reserves are now pockets of survival isolated islands of natural habitats for prime species.  Creation of corridors seems unfeasible in absence of strong political will. The greatest fear is of inbreeding and some instances have been recorded as in Bandhavgarh.

In most of the tiger reserves administration can be defined as lackadaisical absolutely non committal in approach to save the wilderness and its inhabitants. Panna and Sariska are live examples and there may be many with shoddier performance that has gone unnoticed. The ill equipped machinery makes the parks more susceptible to wood logging and poaching. Corruption it seems is becoming a salient feature and it affects our tiger lands as well.

Counting of tigers may be a prerequisite in order to take assessment of the situation. Counting trees literally is as important since habitat must improve and increase in order to sustain the big cats and other endangered species.      

Man eating tigers of India

Every since Jim Corbett published accounts of man eating tigers in Kumaon region, the phenomena of man eating tigers and leopards reached the World.

Tigers are top predators in the food chain. They are tertiary carnivores and hence indicator species of the forest ecosystems. The main prey base of the tigers and leopards are the herbivores albeit the big cats eat anything that walks on four legs. In Indian forests the tigers hunt spotted deer, sambar deer, swamp deer, wild boar, langur monkey and at times bison, elephant calf and porcupine. Tigers are known to predate on leopards but that is more of a territorial conflict than the quest for food.

Tigers are dense forest animals and avoid open or scrub forest. They need cover to hide since they hunt by ambush. They need lot of shade as they cannot bear the heat. Hence good prey base, dense forest cover and water is essential to a tigers habitat.

By nature humans are not included in tiger's food. The reason is that tigers are afraid of humans and avoid them always. The jungles of India once harbored a large number of tigers before deforestation, unchecked hunting and poaching took its toll. Susbsequently it affected the prey base or the population of the herbivores. The scarcity of prey base put the tiger under a major stress and some resorted to man eating by accident in these circumstances. In quest for food, tigers in forests with inadequate prey base wandered near human habitation. In search of food they began to lift cattle. In the conflict with man it sometimes resulted in accidental killing of humans. On discovering the ease with which humans could be killed the tigers emboldened with this finding went on killing spree where lot of humans lost their lives.

Tigers also turned into man eaters when injured by hunters to such an extent that they could not hunt their natural prey since their hunting prowess get affected. Unprofessional adventurous shikaris where the main culprits behind this man killing by tigers.

Once the tiger turns into a man eater it goes after humans with amazing efficiency. A man eating tiger is difficult to track and kill as it moves swiftly from one place to another in order to avoid alerting humans. A man eating tiger can cover a range of as much as hundred kilometers during the period. The incidence of man killing has come down drastically as there are hardly any tigers left outside prime habitats. The incidence of man killing by leopards is still higher as the leopard is more stressed out due to want of space and prey base.

Rarely do tigers kill by intent. There are accidental killings taking place by tigers and these rarely result in tiger turning into a man eater. The accidents happen if humans venture too close to an unaware tiger, a tiger on kill or to a tigress with cubs. The first instinct of tigers is to move away from human beings. But in certain circumstances this is not possible and the animal is forced to attack in self defense.

Tiger is a gentleman and follows the law of the jungle to a tee. Man eating under all circumstances is an aberration as even the most powerful of the tigers are known to fear man.

If tigers are conserved in India and their habitats are kept intact there would be no man killing incidences. The tigers face a road uphill, and their survival seems to be a deep uncertainty.

Labeling tigers as horrible and cruel man killers without understanding the real cause results in hatred being created for the animal. It is labeled of as vermin (as in earlier times) in minds of the human society which further escalates its chances of facing extinction in India and elsewhere.

Indian Wildlife

Indian Animals

CatsFamily= Felidae. Claws adapted to strike and hold prey. Teeth designed to bite cut and tear flesh. Supreme in combination of grace strength and agility.

Senses all highly developed. Bristling Whiskers are sensory tactile organs.

Largest eyes. A well developed system of muscles within the eye contracts and dilates the pupil as per needs. (In smaller cats the pupil contracts to narrow perpendicular slit, while bigger cats have small circular opening. In dark pupil dilates to maximum to allow as much light as possible to enter and fall on a highly sensitive retina.

Feet. A Bengal tiger tracks show only impressions of toes and deeply cushioned pad. There is no trace of sole or heel. Cats walk on toes- digitigrade movement. The raising the heel and the sole alters the balance of the body throwing it forward and increases the impetus of the movement. A cat’s spoor show only 4 toes but the fore foot has five toes where in the 5th toe is set high on the limb. Hind foot has 4 toes.

Teeth. (30) When jaws close the canine interlock. Canines are fang like and separated from other set of teeth to ensure complete penetration. Canines are supported on powerful short jaws by great biting muscles for whose attachment special provision is made in wide sturdy cheek arches and bony crest of the skull.

Canines and incisors are weapons for seizing, holding and biting.The cutting of meat is work of Molar or Cheek Teeth one-on each side both upper & lower Jaw-Carnassial or flesh tooth. (Crowns are compressed into sharp cutting blades indicating excusive diet of flesh.
Carnassial or flesh-tooth(modification of molar teeth) is large and well developed, set in that part of jaws where the biting muscles exerts the greatest pressure. Flesh teeth are ideal for shearing flesh off bones and crushing hard food.Incisor teeth (six in nos.) are small pincer shaped used to gnaw soft gristly ends of bones to scrap tendinous attachment of muscles.

Jaws: Lower jaw moves on transverse hinge which gives strength to joint but limits side to side movement (Not required). In up & down motion sharp bladed cheek teeth work against each other like scissors to cut meat.

Tongue is rasp like. Taste buds are small set on margins.Mos numerous are conical papillae encased in horny pointed sheaths which cover the tongue. These sharp rigid points give the action of rasp suited for licking bones.
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Civets

Family Viverridae.Most related to cats.General characteristics. Nocturnal. Keen eyes, smell and hearing. The facial vibrissae or whiskers are mobile and can be switched backwards and forwards. Depend less on hunting live partly on vegetable matter. They are seed dispersal agents too. Ex. Peepul.

Feet. Short compact feet. Claws well protect and retractile. True civets(Viverrinae)-Can climb well but rarely do look for food on ground. They walk on their toes. Paws are small and compact. Pads are well cushioned and soles are covered with hairs.

Tree Civets (Paradoxurinae). Retractibility varies. Feet are built for climbing. They are plantigrade-entire sole is pressed to ground. The foot is short and broad and all toes are set a level. Sloes are hairless. Longer more sinuous bodies & longer tail.

Teeth (40). Meat eaters have more molars with sharp blade like crowns. Molars are built for cutting meat and grinding vegetables. True civets have broad crowned many cusped molars.

Tree civets are molar teeth are more broader crowns.

Tongue: Civets have smooth tongue. Rasp is not required as they crush bones and swallow them.

Defence. Stink glands –some civets discharge a yellow fluid from their anus at the attacker. Masked with dark and light hair. A warning coloration.

The Small Indian Civet: Viverricula indica. Over 3 ft in entire length. One foot tail. Wt ¾ kg. fond of ber tree.Twany grey or greyish brown, lined and streaked on back. Spotted more or less on in rows along flanks. Some cross bars on neck. Tail ringed.Ground civet heavy forests, long grass or scrub. Shelters in holes. Rocks or grass. Attack by stealth.

The Common Palm Civet or Toddy Cat. Paradoxurus hermaphroditus.Head and body 2 ft. tail 2 feet. Wt3/4 .5 kg. Limbs dark black or brown. Black or brownish civet. Long coarse hair. White Patch below eye. Sometimes one above it & one on each side of nose.
Habitat. Well Wooded lives much on trees. Mango trees or pal trees favorite.
Large Indian Civet. Viverra zibetha. Length less than 5 ft. Erectile crest long deep black in color on back. Dark hoary grey washed with yellow or brown. Dark bands may ornament chest and shoulders & form loops & rosettes on hind quarters.Tail ringed.
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MongooseFamily Herpestidae.
General Characteristics. Small ears rarely project above head. Less semicircular than Civets. Made up of series of complicated folds which can shut down over one and another completely closing the ear too assist in burrowing. Attacks openly. Rushes and pounces too. Digs out its victim. Sits on haunches or hind claws to increase the vision range. Bangs eggs on floor or sucks out the contents of bird eggs. Stink glands but only Striped Neck and Crab eating mongoose use them.. Have anal glands anus enclosed in a glandular sac. More predatory in habit live by hunting. Less sensitive to snake poison.
Claws: are long very long digging claws. Feet splayed, digits freer. Teeth. Sharp Bladed meat cutting teeth. Thorny patch on tongue is thorny papillae used as rasping tool.
Common Mongoose. Herpestes edwardi nyula. Grizzled pepper and salt appearance. Hair alternately ringed with black and white. Length 3 ft.wt 1.4 kg. Males heavier and bigger. Tail tipped with white or yellowish black.
Small Indian Mongoose. Herpestes auropunctatus. 18 to20 inches. Small, short tailed, olive brown, gold flecked, soft silky fur.
Lives in holes burrowed by itself. Diurnal in habit.
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HyenasFamily Hyena. Legs like dogs’ skull and teeth like cats. Broad head with long pointed erect ears. Facial vibrissae or whiskers poorly developed.
Fore limbs are long and sturdy. Hindquarters drooping supported on short knock kneed hind legs. Walks on its toes. Four on each foot. Claws short and blunt. Non-retractile.
Jaws: large and powerful for crushing bones. Shape of skull to provide good attachment for powerful muscles which work with jaws and teeth.
Teeth are large but canines less developed. Molars are large and strong. Second and 3rd premolars have massive conical crowns. These teeth have large basal ridge which acts as guard to protect gums when bone is being crushed.
Anal glands in a large sac hung above anus.
Habits. Scavenger Hunts rarely. Nocturnal. Sight plays little part, hearing none at all. When cornered by dogs the animal lies motionless the dogs loose interest in a supposedly dead creature.
Striped Hyena. Hyaena hyaena. Length total 5feet. Ht 3ft. Wt 38.5 Kg female 34 kg. Mating in cold weather young are born in hot weather.
DogFamily: Canidae
Well shaped head, large pointed muzzle, large erect ears, deep chested muscular body (lung power), bushy tail, slender, sinewy limbs. Professional Hunters.Exceedingly keen sense of smell. Sight & hearing acute.
Feet. Not designed for striking or seizing prey. Small and compact. Claws short and blunt. Toes held together by elastic rimmed webs, well cushioned pads.
Jaws& Teeth. (42) Long jaws provide space for wide array of teeth. Jaws controlled by powerful cheek muscles for holding. Canines separate from other incisor teeth for interlocking. Incisors are forwardly placed for biting gnawing and stripping skin. Cheek teeth have compressed triangular crowns while largest flesh teeth have two great cusps for cutting meat sideways. Tuberculated crowns are well adapted for cracking bones and crunching.
Wolf. Canis lupus.Ht 2.2 ft to 2.6 ft. length 3ft to 3.6 ft tail 1 ft+ Wt 18 -27 kg.Large skull. Breeding season end of rains.Seven Molar teethJackal Canis aureus. Ht1.5 ft.length 2ft to 2.6 ft. Wt 8-11 kg. Scavenger and hunter. Hunts small animals. Sometimes hunts in pack a small deer. Breeding season any.Seven Molar teeth
Indian Fox. Vulpus bengalensis. Lt.1.6ft. tail 1ft+, Wt 1.8 to 3kg.
Wild Dog (Dhole). Cuon alpinus. Ht 1.5 to 2 ft. Head & Body 3ft. tail 1.5 ft. Wt 20 kg. Legs shorter. Tail bushy, ears rounded at tip. Six molar teeth in lower jaw. 12-14 teats.
BearsFamily Ursidae.
General Characteristics. Smell dominant sense. Hearing & sight poor. (Auditory bullae-bony prominences in skull placed behind ear opening are flat & depressed. Swollen and well developed in animal with keen sense of hearing.)Sense variably developed in bears. Sloth is comparatively short scented. Brown Bear sense of smell stronger Himalayan black bear can see and hear better. Facial vibrissae rudimentary. Omnivorous.(Hibernation) Body mechanism brought to standstill. Hear action reduced, temperature falls below normal.Feet. Adapted to climbing. Limbs powerful, feet padded, and great claws. Broad naked soled feet. (Climbing species have matted hair on soles) Inward twist to fore paw in tree climbing bears this compels a bear to strike with a round arm swing.
Teeth. Low flat crown of cheek teeth designed for crushing. Not cutting planes to cheek teeth, flesh teeth in distinguished fro other molars.


Sloth Bear. Melursus ursinus.
General characteristics. Sloth bear sleep in open (tall grass or under shade of tree) in winters. In hot 7 rains in caves and dens. Tolerates heat better than tiger but constantly thirsty.
Ht. 2.2 ft to 2.9 ft. Lt. 4.5 to 5.5 ft. Wt Males. 127 to 145 kg. Fem. 64 kgs upwards.
Elongated muzzle & grizzled appearance. V breast patch. Longer claws on fore feet.
Feed in hot weather on banyan, figs, Mahua, mango, jamun, bael, ebony. Large rock bee (apis dorsata) smaller forest bee (apis indica). Insects, termites.
Breeding hot weather. Gestation seven months. Maturity2-3 yrs.
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Flying Squirrel.
Class Mammalia. Order Rodentia.
Limbs connected with membrane or a parachute.
Large Flying squirrels.Large Brown Flying squirrel: Petaurista petaurista philippensis. General Characteristics. Nocturnal. Roost in a hole in a tree. May sleep on its back with parachute open to keep cool. Food is fruits barks resin gum. Insects. Larvae. Loud alarm call and chattering cry.
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Artiodactylia-even toed ungulates. Oxen, sheep, pigs, deer, antelopes, camels.
Family Bovidae. Oxen, sheep, goats, antelopes & gazelles.GaurFamily Bovidae. Bos gaurus.
Feet’ shod with horny hooves to face rough terrain (All hoofed animals walk on tips of their toes and no. of toes are reduced not more than 4). 3rd & 4th toe greatly developed equal hooves which encase these present flat surface to each other & look like a single hoof cleft in two hence ‘cloven hoofed’. Others reduced. Ist toe is wanting. 2&5th either reduced or absent.Hooves of gaur small close knit for hard stony ground. Buffalo hooves wide splayed for marshy life.
Teeth are for long mastication. Grinding teeth have broad crowns with fold and ridges of hard enamel braced on either side by soft layer of dentine which bears the brunt of grinding. No incisor teeth in upper jaw replaced by soft pad. Canines absent or rudimentary in upper jaw. Lower jaw has canine and incisors brought in close contact together-grass cropping apparatus.
Stomach is 4 chambered. 1st largest paunch serves to contain large quantity of hastily chewed food. Here it under goes softening process & returned to mouth in small boluses which is thoroughly chewed known as ruminating or chewing the cud.
Food when pulped enters 2nd chamber reticulum or honey comb as its walls are celled like honey comb. Here the food is pressed and shaped & sent into gullet from where it is sent to 3 rd & 4th chamber, actual digestion takes place in last chamber. Antelopes and Deers have similar complex stomach.
Horns of all Bovids persists for life, have a core of bone arising from skull & an outer sheath of true horn The outer sheath is hollow & can be removed from its bony core. Hence the name hollow-horned ruminants. This distinguishes them from Cervidae-ruminants with solid horns. Oxen horns of both male & female are nearly equal in size but in goats and sheep female horns are smaller.
In Gaur sense of smell keenly developed. No glands. Breeding. Rut March, April, May young seen from nov-march.
Sub-Family Antilopinae –antilopes & gazelles. General characteristics. Horns may be present in females are cylindrical & lyre shaped. Gland under eyes as in Black buck. Large inguinal glands (between groin) and between hooves.

Chinkara or Indian Gazelle. Gazella gazelle. 2 feet at shoulder. Wt 20-23 kgs. Horns 10-12 inches & of does 4-5 inches-15-25 rings. White streak down each side of face and dusky patch above nose. Can be waterless for long.Breeding peak is April, minor autumn. Gestation 5.5 months.Males territorial hold about 200 meter demarcated by fecal stations used repeatedly.
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Black Buck. Antelope cervicapra. Ht. 32 in at shoulder. Wt40kgs. Horns 20 inches. Horns. No spiral in 1st yr. In 2nd yr. large open spiral & 3rd year more spiral when black color is obtained. Breeding. All yr. main rut Feb, March.
Sub Familae- Boselaphinae- Horns are not ringed & keeled in front. Females do not have horns.

Four Horned Antelope or Chowsingha. Tetracerus quadricornis. Ht. 25 in. Posterior horns 3-4 inches. Anterior horns 1-+ inch. Glands between hooves of hind legs in both.Dark stripe in front of each leg more defined in fore leg. More dependant on water.Breeding. Hot weather and rains. Young are born ion Oct to feb. Gestation is 8 to 8.5 months.
Nilgai or Blue Bull. Boselaphus tragocamelus. Ht Male.52-56 in. Horns 8 in. Keeled triangular at base & circular at tips. Breeding all season. Gestation about 8 months.
Cervidae- Deer ruminants with solid horns. Large fissure or opening in skull below each eye –lachrymal fissure. Unlike Ox, tushes or canines are present in upper jaws. Unlike Bovidae gall bladder absent except in musk deer. Scent glands below eyes & between the hooves.
Swamp Deer. Cervus duvaucelli branderi. Ht 54. inch Wt. 170-180 Kgs. Horns 30 inch round curve. Less nocturnal.Breeding Rut Nov-Dec.
Sambhar- Cervus Unicolor. Ht 5 ft +. Wt 220-320 Kgs. Horns 26 inch in length and 38 inch in girth. Horns are shed in end March to May. Velvet during rains and clear by November. Rut Nov-Dec. Young are born in May & June.
Chital or Spotted Deer. Axis axis. Ht 36 in. Wt 85-90 kgs. Horns are shed in August & September. Velvet till end of Dec. Breeding. Rut in May. Breed in the interval of six months.
Muntjac or Barking Deer. Muntiacus muntjak. Ht.20-30 in. Wt.48 Kgs. Antlers short brow tine unbranched. Set on bony hair covered pedicels. Upper canines well developed used in defence. Have a frontal gland in forehead. Diurnal Main rut in winters. Has affinity for water & need to drink often.
Family Suidae.
Wild Boar. Sus scrofa. Ht. 36 inch. Wt 230kgs. Lower tusks 12. inch. Acute sense of smell.Young are born in two seasons. Before rains and after rains. Gestation four months. Prolific breeders.
Ape. Primates.
Many structural characters as man. Thumb is opposed to other fingers. Hand can pick and hold objects. Here limbs are for locomotion. Bones of hands are free and articulated to wrist such that palm can be moved up and down with ease.
Feet. Toes are long and flexible and thumb is large and opposed to fingers with such foot objects can be seized and held. Feet have become powerful grasping organs for climbing-human foot has lost this power.
Teeth – molar teeth have broad crowns with cusps and ridges for grinding tough vegetable matter.
Cheek pouch help cram food. Macaques have these but not Langurs. Langur’s stomach does his work. It is three chambered stomach. Macaques and baboons have a stomach of carnivorous animals as they are omnivorous.
Well developed vision and hearing.
Indian Monkeys. Family Cercopithecidae. Sub- family-Cercopithecinae—macaques Colobinae-Langurs.
Rhesus Macaque. Macaca mulatto. Wt 7-10kgs. Mating October to Dec. Birth March and June. Second Sept. to October. No birth in Nov. March.
Langurs. Hanuman Monkey. Presbytis entellus. Wt. 34 -36 kgs. Breeding AprilMay. Birth feb onwards. Gestation – 6 months.